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THE 



Youth's Educational 

■c 

Cabinet 



A WORK DESIGNED FOR THE HOME EDUCATION AND AMUSEMENT 

OF CHILDREN. 



BY 



D. K. THOMAS, Ph. B., Ped. B. 



1 




NORMAL PARK, CHICAGO, ILL. 
1895. 

Copyrighted by D. K. Thomas, 1895. 



V 



low to Use the Cabinet. 






1 . The purpose of this work is to afford amusement for children at home, and at the same time to 
educate them. The work of getting an education is a prodigious undertaking which confronts every child of 
this generation. No one can hope to rise high without culture. Every means that will tend to facilitate this 
work and make it attractive and pleasant, should be obtained. More than twelve years of experience and 
observation as principal and superintendent of schools, have convinced the author that the progress and thorough- 
ness of those children who have educational means at home, far exceed those who have none, and that at least 
two years of school life may be saved by the proper use of a blackboard at home. Class work at school is thus 
made more accurate, more logical in arrangement, more rapid and more artistic. 

2. This work is not intended to be a complete course in any subject, but will be found helpful and 
suggestive. The complete treatment of the subjects would require all the large text-books used in the public 
school course. This work cannot take the place of any of the text-books, but will be found very helpful in 
using them to the best advantage. 

3. The value of the blackboard for home use, cannot be overestimated. "The best school is founded 
on chalk." Upon the blackboard can be placed clear outlines and expositions of all lessons, while at the same 
time the child relieves and exercises the body by giving it a change from the desk or table, where it has been 
cramped over books and papers. 

4. As far as possible, children should work together or with the parent or governess. Solitary study in 
any branch, at any age,, is not so valuable as associated work. Co-operative labor always produces the best and 
greatest results. The mutual assistance and the competition for excellence, impress facts and principles upon the 
mind in indellible forms. "No idea is clearly conceived until it is expressed in words," is a well established 
pedagogical maxim. Mutual assistance in questions, statements and criticisms is of the highest value. 

5. The instructions given on these pages are intended for the older children, the parent or the instructor. 
While the language is plain and simple, it is not baby talk; but throughout, things have been called by their 
right names. It is a mistaken idea of some teachers that small children cannot understand things by their right 
names. The facility with which children learn the names of things is truly wonderful. They often know hun- 
dreds of names before they can articulate them. Teach the right name at the start. 

6. It is a principle in pedagogy that the child learns only when learning is made pleasurable. Hence, 
the pages of this book have been designed with the aim of amusing children kept steadily in view; and the 
illustrations have all been designed and engraved expressly for this work, making a somewhat systematic and 
complete course in freehand drawing for both paper and blackboard. The pictures throughout the Language 
Lessons are intended for pencil and pen, and are just such as artists are making to-day for all illustrated papers 
and periodicals throughout the world. They were all made with the pen and then photo-engraved. Every stroke 
of the pen appears on them exactly as it was made on the original drawing, except that it is of smaller size. 
Many of these artists command high salaries. 

7. The penmanship is designed to be suggestive only, and gives the correct forms of all the letters. No 
man writes exactly the hand that was taught him when a child in school. The writing is photo-engraved from 
original work done by Prof. I. W. Pierson, of Bryant & Stratton's Business College, Chicago. 

8. When children are to be entertained at home while the mother or the governess attends to other 
duties, they may be started on some amusing blackboard work and then they will need no care for hours at a 
time, while all their play-work will be educational. 

9. Playing school and playing store are most valuable amusements for children. In playing school the 
blackboard secures the highest interest, and is large enough for two children to write columns of figures or to 
draw maps at the same time. 









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PENMANSHIP 



Writing is one of the greatest of the arts. Its value in the progress 
of civilization cannot be estimated. Without it the commerce and business 
of the world would come to an indefinite halt, and literature would suffer a 
relapse as dismal as the Dark Ages. Besides its importance to commerce and 
literature, it exerts a great influence upon the civilization of our race by 
cultivating our aesthetic nature. Who ever heard of a great penman, a great 
artist, or a great musician being convicted of a crime? Penmanship is one 
of the Fine Arts. 




Principles. — i, straight line; 2, right curve; 3, left curve; 4, extended loop; 5, the oval; 6, inverted 
oval; 7, the capital stem. 



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The small letters are divided into Short Letters, Stem Letters, and Loop Letters. 





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Any one whose arms are not crippled or deformed may become a good 
and rapid penman. Practice is the one essential. 

Three things are important: proper position at the desk, correct way 
of holding the pen; and geting the best movement. 

Proper Position at the Desk. — The desk at which one writes must 
be of such height that when sitting erect with the feet firmly upon the floor, 
and the elbows on the desk the shoulders are neither elevated nor depressed. 
There are two positions recognized: the front position and the side position. 
The cut on page 2 shows a boy seated in the correct front position. This 
position is now considered the best. The side position is shown in the cut 
of the girl on this page. 

GAPITAL LRTTBRS. 










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or wrist. 



Movement. — There are three movements : The finger movement, the mus- 
cular movement, and the whole-arm movement. 

The Finger Movement is made by the fingers alone, the fore-arm resting 
easily and quietly on the desk. It is used very little alone by good penmen, 
but is generally combined, especially in shading, with the 

Muscular Movement. — This movement is produced by rolling the arm on 
the muscle just below the elbow, without moving the joints of the fingers, thumb 
It is the great movement to be acquired by all learning to write. 
Whole-Arm Movement is little used except in ornamental penmanship and in flourishing. It is pro- 



The 
duced by raising the whole arm free from the desk with only the last two fingers touching the paper 





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Blackboard Work.— As a pastime it is excellent practice to flourish the capital letters in their correct 
forms on the blackboard, and to write out in artistic style various words and mottoes. Try flourishing the 
birds on the blackboard in various designs. 



GOUNTING. 



COUNTING is adding. Learn to count by ones, 
twos, threes, fours, fives, etc. Count the pic- 
tures in this book, the chairs in your house, 
the pailings on your fence, the number of beans you 
can hold in your hand. 

Write on the blackboard the numbers up to 500. 
Copy on the blackboard the fifth, sixth, seventh and 
eigth columns and then count them up. Make other 
columns and add them also. 



fa Numbers.^ 



COUNTING— ADDING. 



1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
1 1 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 



31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 



61 
62 
63 
64 
65 
66 
67 
68 
69 
70 
71 
72 
73 
74 
75 
76 
77 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 
83 
84 
85 
86 
87 
88 
89 
90 



91 

92 

93 

94 

95 

96 

97 

98 

99 

100 

101 

102 

103 

104 

105 

106 

107 

108 

109 

110 

111 

112 

113 

114 

115 

116 

117 

118 

119 

120 



2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 



3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 



2 
2 
3 
2 
3 
3 
2 
2 
3 
2 
3 
2 
3 
3 
3 
2 
2 
2 
3 
3 
3 
2 
3 
2 
3 
2 
3 
3 
2 



4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 



2 
3 
2 
4 
3 
4 
2 
3 
4 
4 
2 
2 
3 
4 
3 
3 
4 
3 
4 
4 
4 
3 
2 
2 
3 
4 
2 
4 
3 



5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 



2 
3 
4 
5 
3 
4 
2 
3 
5 
5 
3 
4 
5 
4 
2 
2 
3 
5 
4 
3 
3 
4 
5 
3 
2 
2 
3 
5 
4 



■■■I 



in 

III! 



DRAWINGS 



DO NOT use a rule. Draw all lines with the hand 
free. Make on paper ten lines each one inch 
long, and mark their middle points. Make 
twenty lines, each two inches long, and divide each of 
them into three equal parts. To draw the designs on 
this page, first make little dots for the corners, then 
join these dots by drawing lines between them with a 
free, easy movement of the hand. The whole hand 
and wrist must move at the same time. Do not let the 
fingers move alone, but only as the whole hand moves. 
Vary the designs given by changing the position 
of some of lines. Make many new designs. 

FOR ANGLES, ETC., SEE PAGE (16). 



see 



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Numbers. 




HOW MANY ARE 



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1 




I 











JTU 



4? 


4 les 


3? 


3 " 


5? 


7 " 


6? 


6 " 


8? 


5 " 


7? 


3 " 


6? 


4 " 


8? 


6 " 


9? 


7 " 


5? 


5 " 


8? 


7 " 


6? 


8 " 


7? 


6 " 


9? 


5 " 


8? 


4 " 


7? 


6 " 


10? 


9 " 


6? 


8 " 


8? 


7 " 


7? 


5 " 


5? 


4 " 


9? 


8 " 


6? 


9 " 


7? 


7 " 


8? 


6 " 


7? 


9 " 


9? 


10 " 


9? 


12 " 


9? 


14 " 



2? 
3? 
4? 
2? 
3? 
3? 
5? 
4? 
3? 
5? 
6? 
3? 
4? 
2? 
2? 
6? 
5? 
7? 
5? 
1? 
4? 
5? 
6? 
6? 
7? 
8? 
6? 
7? 




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Numbers. 



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T 


THE TWOS 






One 


times 2 


is 


2 


Two 


a 


2 


are 


4 


Three 


a 


2 


a 


6 


Four 


a 


2 


f< 


8 


Five 


a 


2 


a 


10 


Six 


a 


2 


a 


12 


Seven 


a 


2 


a 


14 


Eight 


a 


2 


a 


16 


Nine 


a 


2 


a 


18 


Ten 


a 


2 


a 


20 


Eleven 


a 


2 


a 


22 


Twelve 


a 


2 


a 


24 


Thirteen 


a 


2 


u 


26 


Fourteen 


a 


2 


a 


28 


Fifteen 


it 


2 


a 


30 



THE FIVES. 




One 


times 3 is 


3 


Two 


a 


3 are 


6 


Three 


a 


3 » 


9 


Four 


a 


3 " 


12 


Five 


a 


3 " 


15 


Six 


a 


3 " 


18 


Seven 


u 


3 " 


21 


Eight 


a 


3 " 


24 


Nine 


a 


3 " 


27 


Ten 


a 


3 " 


30 


Eleven 


a 


3 " 


33 


Twelve 


a 


3 " 


36 


Thirteen 


a 


3 " 


39 


Fourteen 


ii 


3 » 


42 


Fifteen 


a 


3 " 


45 


Drawing. 





Sketch the forms of the pic- 
tures lightly at first with a lead 
pencil. When you have them 
right make the lines heavy. 





Numbers. 


'<T^)|§^- 


"» 


HOW riANY 




Twos 


in 2 ? in 


6? 


Fours 


" 4? " 


8? 


Threes 


" 6? " 


9? 


Sevens 


" 14? " 


21? 


Fives 


" 10? " 


15? 


Sixes 


" 12? " 


18? 


Eights 


"16? " 


24? 


Nines 


" 18? " 


27? 


Twelves 


.. 24? " 


36? 


Thirteens 


" 26? " 


39? 


Fourteens 


a 28? " 


42? 


Fifteens 


.. 3Q? H 


45? 



Problems, 

i. Carl has i o apples and 
gives his sister 5 ; how many 
has he left ? 

2. If his sister gave back 
to him 5 apples; how many 
would he then have ? How 
many would she have ? 

3. Rose has 12 oranges, 
she wishes to sell them at 3 
cents each; how much money 
should she receive ? 

4. A boy wishes to buy 
fans at 3 cents each ; he has 
27 cents; how many can he 
buy? 

5. If a boy sells 9 fans at 
5 cents each; what does he 
receive for them ? 





| Numbers. 




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1 

THE FOURS. 


Once 




4 is 4 


il Two 


times 4 are 8 


Three 


a 


4 " 12 


Four 


a 


4 " 16 


\ Five 


u 


4 " 20 


! Six 


it 


4 " 24 


1 Seven 


a 


4 " 28 


Eight 


a 


4 " 32 


Nine 


a 


4 » 36 


j Ten 


a 


4 '.! 40 


| Eleven 


a 


4 " 44 


Twelve 


a 


4 " 48 


1 Thirteen 


a 


4 " 52 


\ Fourteen 


a 


4 " 56 


Fifteen 


a 


4 " 60 


THE FIVES. 


Two 


times 5 are 10 


! Three 


n 


5 " 15 


Four 


a 


5 " 20 


Five 


a 


5 " 25 


Six 


a 


5 " 30 


\ Seven 


a 


5 " 35 


Eight 


a 


5 " 40 


| Nine 


u 


5 " 45 


i Ten 


a 


5 " 50 


Eleven 


u 


5 " 55 


Twelve 


a 


5 " 60 


Thirteen 


a 


5 " 65 


! Fourteen 


a 


5 " 70 


I Fifteen 


a 


5 " 75 






Numbers, 



HOW flANY 



Twos 

Fours 

Threes 

Fives 

Sevens 

Sixes 

Eights 

Nines 

Twelves 

Tens 

Thirteens 

Fourteens 

Elevens 

Fifteens 



8? 
12? 

12? 
20? 
28? 
24? 
32? 
36? 
48? 
40? 
52? 

56? 
44? 
60? 



in 



10? 
20? 
15? 
25? 
35? 
30? 
40? 
45? 
60? 
50? 
65? 
70? 
55? 
75? 



EXAMPLES. 

i. What will be the cost 
of 7 quarts of milk at 4 cents 
a quart ? 

2. A girl wishes to buy 
two dolls worth 1 5 cents each : 
what must she pay for them ? 
3. Five boys each buy a 
top for 5 cents. How much 
does the clerk receive for the 
five tops? 

4. A merchant sells five 
yards of cloth for 70 cents. 
What is it worth a yard ? 

5. A clerk charges 65 
cents for 13 quarts of berries. 
What are they worth a quart ? 




FIRST sketch in very light lines on the 
blackboard or on paper the figure to be 
made, erasing and changing where necessary; 
then make the lines heavy and put in the 
shading. Use both the blackboard and paper. 



Multlpli 


catio 

IXES. 


n. 


Numbers. 


THE S 


HOW 


MANY 


Once 


6 is 


6 


Twos 


in 12? 


Two times 6 are 12 


Threes 


" 18? 


Three " 


6 " 


18 


Fours 


" 24? 


Four " 


6 " 


24 


Fives 


" 30? 


Five 


6 " 


30 


Sixes 


" 36? 


Six 


6 " 


36 


Sevens 


" 42? 


Seven " 


6 " 


42 


Eights 


" 48? 


Eight " 


6 " 


48 


Nines 


" 54? 


Nine " 


6 " 


54 


Tens 


" 60? 


Ten 


6 " 


60 


Elevens 


'" 66? 


Eleven " 


6 " 


66 


Twelves 


" 72? 


Twelve " 


6 " 


72 


Thirteens 


" 78? 


Thirteen " 


6 '•' 


78 


Fourteens 


" 84? 


Fourteen " 


6 " 


84 


Fifteens 


" 90? 


Fifteen " 


6 " 


90 


Ones 


" 6? 



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EXPLANATION. 



«$.« 



Observe that three times 6, which is 18, is six 
more than two times 6, which is 12; that is, 6 is 
added to 12, making 18; and in four times 6, six is 
again added to 18, making 24. 

Notice also that in the twos, 2 is added to each 
successive number; and that in the threes., 3 is added; 
in the fours, 4 is added, and so on. Thus where 
any number is forgotten it may often be found by 
adding to one that is remembered the proper num- 
ber; in the twos add 2, in the threes add 3, to the one 
you know and you will have the next number. 



10 



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Playing School 



Write the programme on the blackboard. 
PROGRAMME. 



A. M. 


P. M. 


Roll call. 


Roll call. 


Opening Exercises. 


Opening Exercises. 


Reading and Spelling. 


Drawing. 


Arithmetic. 


Songs. 


Recess . 


Writing. 


Reading and Spelling. 


Recess . 


Oral Exercises. 


Geography. 


Written Arithmetic. 


Calisthenics. 


Written Spelling. 


Map Drawing. 



Suggestions to the Teacher. 

i. The class should recite sometimes in con- 
cert, but generally as individuals are called on. 

2. Give the question before you name the one 
who is to answer it. In that way you will secure 
better attention. 

3. When you ask a question never intimate 
what the answer is till you are sure that none of the 
class can answer it. 

4. Never give an explanation of any thing that 
any of the class can explain. Make your pupils do 
most of the work. 

5. Give short lessons and be sure that you 
thoroughly understand them yourself. Neither 
teacher nor pupil should guess at answers. 



Multiplication. 

».-o— * 

THE SEVENS. 


1 


Numbers. 


HOW 


MANY 


Once 




1 is 


7 


7's 




in 


14? 


Two times " 


1 are 14 


a 




a 


35? 


Three 


a 


J a 


21 


a 




a 


28? 


Four 


a 


f " 


28 


a 




a 


49? 


Five 


a ' 


' a 


35 


a 




a 


42? 


Six 


a " 


f a 


42 


a 




a 


21? 


Seven 


a ' 


' a 


49 


a 




a 


56? 


Eight 


a 


' a 


56 


a 




a 


63? 


Nine 


a 


f a 


63 


a 




a 


77? 


Ten 


" '. 


t a 


70 


a 




a 


70? 


Eleven 


a ', 


f a 


77 


a 




a 


84? 


Twelve 


a 


' a 


84 


a 




a 


98? 


Thirteen 


a " 


t a 


91 


a 




a 


91? 


Fourteen 


" "i 


* a 


98 


a 




a 


7? 


Fifteen 


" 1 


r a 


105 


a 




a 


105? 








11 



THE SIGNS. 



There are five signs often used in arithmetic. The sign of Addition, +, read 
plus, used between numbers which are to be added. The sign of Substraction, — , 
read minus, used between two numbers, when the second is to be taken from the first. The sign of Multiplication, X, 
often used between numbers which are to be multiplied together (read multiplied by,) and the sign of Division, +, 
read divided by, used between two numbers when the first is to be divided by the second. 

+ means plus. 
— means minus. 



X multiplied by. 
-f- divided by. 



-^®@?~- 



Multiplication. 



THE 


EIGHTS. 




Once 




8 


is 


8 


Two times 


8 


are 


16 


Three 


■■ 


8 


a 


24 


Four 


.. 


8 


a 


32 


Five 


a 


8 


a 


40 


Six 


a 


8 


a 


48 


Seven 


a 


8 


a 


56 


Eight 


a 


8 


a 


64 


Nine 


a 


8 


a 


72 


Ten 


a 


8 


i. 


80 


Eleven 


u 


8 


a 


88 


Twelve 


a 


8 


a 


96 


Thirteen 


a 


8 


a 


104 


Fourteen 


a 


8 


" 


112 


Fifteen 


a 


8 


a 


120 



THE NINES. 




Once 




9 


is 


9 


Two times 9 


are 


18 


Three 


a 


9 


a 


27 


Four 


a 


9 


a 


36 


Five 


a 


9 


a 


45 


Six 


a 


9 


a 


54 


Seven 


a 


9 


a 


63 


Eight 


a 


9 


u 


72 


Nine 


a 


9 


a 


81 


Ten 


a 


9 


a 


90 


Eleven 


a 


9 


a 


99 


Twelve 


a 


9 


it 


108 


Thirteen 


a 


9 


i. 


117 


Fourteen 


a 


9 


u 


126 


Fifteen 


a 


9 


a 


135 




The sign of equality, = , 
read equals, is placed be- 
tween numbers to show that 
they are equal. 



•'»@/f§)@/©e/- 



Numbers. 



HOW HANY 

8s in 8? 9's in 18? 

32? " " 36? 

24? " " 27? 

48? " " 45? 

56? " " 72? 

40? " " 81? 

64? " " 63? 

88? " " 99? 

72? " " 90? 

96? " "108? 

80? " "126? 

104? " " 117? 

120? " " 54? 

112? " "135? 



Uses of the Signs. 
7+16=23. 
8+4+3=15. 
1 6—3=13. 
22—7=15. 
8X6=48. 
9X13=117. 
64--8=8. 
135^9=15. 



Areas. 



The area of a board, of a 
garden or of any surface 
may be found by multiply- 
ing its length by its breadth; 
but both length and breadth 
must be of the same kind, 
i. e. feet, inches, yards, etc. 



18 



Numbers 



Multiplication. 



THE TENS. 



Once 

Two times 

Three " 

Four " 

Five " 
Six 

Seven " 
Eight 
Nine 
Ten 

Eleven " 

Twelve " 

Thirteen " 

Fourteen " 

Fifteen " 



10 is 10 
1 are 20 
10 



10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 



30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

110 

120 

130 

140 

150 




^nD^\@(f§WB^ 



THE ELEVENS. 



times 



Once 

Two 

Three 

Four 

Five 

Six 

Seven 

Eight 

Nine 

Ten 

Eleven 

Twelve " 

Thirteen " 

Fourteen " 

Fifteen " 



is 11 

are 22 

" 33 

" 44 

" 55 

66 

77 

88 

99 

110 

121 

132 

143 

154 

165 




!jfe*-~-c3-. 



Tlw Triangle is om-hcAfQjtkSquan. 




Mat isJhe area oflksi Inangls&l 




Tow.vlimw/ourtiwtesjfoars t4- 




How many blocks? 




Numbers. 



HOW flANY 



0sin40? 


ll'sin 33? 


" " 80? 


a 


"11? 


" " 70? 


a 


" 44? 


<< « 30? 


a 


" 77? 


" " 50? 


>» 


" 66? 


« " 90? 


a 


" 22? 


« << 20? 


a 


" 88? 


u u 60 ? 


a 


" 55? 


" "100? 


u 


" 99? 


" "130? 


a 


" 110? 


" "120? 


a 


"132? 


" "100? 


a 


"143? 


" " 10? 


a 


" 121? 


" "140? 


a 


" 154? 


" "150? 


a 


"165? 



Areas. 



See triangles on page 16. 
The area of any triangle is 
y 2 a parallelogram. There- 
fore the area of any trian- 
gle is Yi the product of its 
base multiplied by its 
height. 



Draw figures on the 
blackboard and find their 
areas. Also draw other 
figures and designs and 
find their areas. 



13 




Numbers. 



2>JJt<S 

THE TWELVES. 



Two 

Three 

Four 

Five 

Six 

Seven 

Eight 

Nine 

Ten 

Eleven 

Twelve 

Thirteen 

Fourteen 

Fifteen 



times 



12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 



are 24 
" 36 
" 48 
" 60 
" 72 
" 84 
" 96 
" 108 
" 120 
" 132 
" 144 
" 156 
" 168 
" 180 



THE THIRTEENS. 



Two 

Three 

Four 

Five 

Six 

Seven 

Eight 

Nine 

Ten 

Eleven 

Twelve 

Thirteen 

Fourteen 

Fifteen 



times 



13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 



are 



26 

39 

52 

65 

78 

91 

104 

117 

130 

143 

156 

169 

182 

195 












Numbers, 



12 



s in 



HOW 

36? 

24? 

60? 

48? 

12? 

72? 

96? 

84? 
108? 
132? 
156? 
120? 
168? 
144? 
180? 



riANY 

13's in 26? 
39? 
65? 
52? 
91? 
78? 
104? 
117? 
156? 
130? 
" 143? 
" 182? 
" 169? 
" 195? 



Drawing. 

C>JJl<3 



A rule and a compass are 
necessary instruments in draw- 
ing the figures or designs on 
these pages. The ten-cent com- 
pass and a common rule are all 
that are needed. 

First lay off the square or 
squares, then draw the diag- 
onals and find the centers to be 
used. 

Make other designs of your 
own on the Blackboard and 
then draw them also on paper. 




14 





-nr-LL, r^p ^ r^p r^p r^T? 





Relations of Numbers. 

i. Mr. A. earns $12 a week 
and his son }4 as much. How 
much does his son earn ? 

2. 6 is what part of 12 ? 

3. 12 is what part of 36 ? 

4. Mr. Smith has 36 sheep 
and sells }i of them. How 
many did he sell ? 

5. How many sheep has 
Mr. Smith left ? 

6. How many thirds has he 
left after selling the y$i 

7. 24 is what part of 36 ? 



Wl 


lat is 


Whj 


'A 


of 6? 


2 / 3 


'A 


" 26? 


Vs ' 


'A 


" 34? 


2 A ' 


'A 


" 42? 


Vs ' 


'A 


" 46? 


'A ■ 


'A 


" 72? 


3 A ' 


'A 


" 9? 


'A ' 


1/3 


" 15? 


2 A ' 


7. 


" 21? 


V- ' 


7s 


" 36? 


Vs ' 


73 


" 45? 


V. ' 


7. 


" 20? 


■A ' 


73 


" 15? 


2 A ' 


7a 


" 35? 


5 A ' 


75 


" 40? 


'A ' 


7a 


li 65? 


Vs ' 


•/. 


" 75? 


Vs ' 



9? 

15? 
30? 
16? 
16? 
10? 
10? 
10? 
40? 
40? 
35? 
35? 
35? 
56? 
56? 
56? 




15 



.unn«M»M%%MMfc»«w»***l***< 



y^ineoj 



Right Perpendicular 



Angles. Lines. 



Parallel Lines. 



Acute Angle. 



Obtuse Angle. 



Arithmetical Tables. 



TO KEEP STORE WE MUST KNOW 
THE TABLES. 




UNITED STATES MONEY. 

10 Mills make i Cent c or ct. 

i o Cents " rDime d. 

10 Dimes ' ' i Dollar $ 

10 Dollars " i Eagle E. 

How many cents in a dollar ? In a half- 
dollar ? In a quarter-dollar ? 

The money of the Dominion of Canada is 
like that of the U. S. 



AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT 

is used to weigh groceries, hay, coal, and all 
heavy articles. 

1 6 Ounces make i Pound lb. 

ioo Pounds " i Hundred weight cwt. 

20 cwt. or 2,000 lbs. make 1 Ton T. 

How many ounces in 5*4 pounds of sugar? 
How many cwt. in 3^ tons of hay ? 



LONG MEASURE 

is used in measuring dry goods, lots, gardens, 
and lengths, breadths and distances. 

12 Inches make 1 Foot ft. 

3 Feet ' ' 1 Yard yd. 

5*/ 2 Yds. or 16% ft. " 1 Rod rd. 

320 Rods make " 1 Mile mi. 



SQUARE MEASURE 

is used in finding the areas of surfaces as of 
boards, land, plastering, painting, paving, etc. 

144 Square Inches (sq. in.) make 1 Square 

Foot sq. ft. 

9 Square Feet make 1 Square Yard.sq. yd. 
30^ Square Yards ' ' 1 Square Rod . . sq. rd. 

160 Square Rods ' ' 1 Acre A. 

640 Acres " 1 Square Mile.sq. mi. 



LIQUID MEASURE 

is used in measuring liquors, water, molasses, 
vinegar, milk, etc. 

4 Gills (gi.) make 1 Pint pt- 

2 Pints " 1 Quart qt. 

4 Quarts " 1 Gallon gal. 

31 y 2 Gallons ' ' 1 Barrel bbl. 



16 



Equilateral 

IITrttznfllellj 



Sides all E^ucil. 



Isosceles; 
zTelaKgUz 



Two Sides E^uai. 



One Obtuse .Anjle. 



\m 



Semi-circle. 



An=0v als= 



I Ellipse. 



f\ Cube. 



A RectanjgU. 



V$ w£\<£v^qA . 



4 Culindet 

■j ii in 1 



Arithmetical Tables 



WRITE THEM NICELY ON THE 

BLACKBOARD TILL YOU 

KNOW THEM. 



DRY MEASURE 

is used in measuring grain, as oats, wheat, 
corn; fruits, vegetables, salt, etc. 

2 Pints (pt.) make i Quart qt. 

8 Quarts ' ' i Peck pk. 

4 Pecks ' ' i Bushel bu. 




CUBIC MEASURE 

is used in finding the number of solid feet or 
yards in a body, or the capacity in gallons of 
barrels, tanks, cisterns or other vessels. 
1728 Cubic Inches (cu. in.) make 1 

Cubic Foot cu. ft. 

27 Cubic Feet make 1 Cubic Yard cu. yd. 

16 Cubic Feet " 1 Cord Foot cd. ft. 

8 Cord Feet or 128 Cubic Feet make 1 

Cord of Wood cd. 

24^ Cubic Feet make 1 Perch of Stone... Pch. 



TINE TABLE 

is used in dividing time, as days, hours, 
years, etc. 

60 Seconds (sec.) make 1 Minute min. 

60 Minutes ' ' 1 Hour hr. 

24 Hours ' ' 1 Day da. 

7 Days " 1 Week wk. 

4 Weeks ' ' 1 Month mo. 

12 Months ' ' 1 Year yr. 

100 Years " 1 Century c. 

IN COUNTING, 

12 Things make 1 Dozen doz. 

1 2 Dozen ' ' 1 Gross gr. 

20 Things " 1 Score. 



IN PAPER, 

24 Sheets make 1 Quire. 
20 Quires " 1 Ream. 
2 Reams " 1 Bundle. 
5 Bundles " 1 Bale. 



Playing store is a 
amusement for children, 



valuable educational 



A Pyramid. 




f\ Cone. 




A Sphere, 




A Herm-sphere, 



17 




When we speak or write we always say something of some person, place or thing. 

Examples: — 

Birds sing. New York is a large city. 

Boys play. Papa has gone from home. 

Girls read books. We should like to have a holiday. 

In each of these expressions the words used are so arranged as to make complete sense, and hence each 

group is called a Sentence. 

RULE- — The first word of every sentence must begin with a capital letter. 

Write ten sentences in your scratch book and ten on the blackboard. Be sure to use the rule. 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. — In every sentence we use, we say or assert something; and we say or 
assert it of some object about which we speak. So you see a sentence has two parts. One part is the name of 
the thing about which we speak; the other part is what we say of it. In the sentence, " Birds sing," we speak 
of " Birds," and we say they "sing." "Birds" is called the Subject of the sentence, because it is what we 
speak of ; and ' ' sing ' ' is called the Predicate, because it is what is said or predicated or asserted of the 
subject. 

So in the sentence, " We should like to have a holiday; " " We " is the subject, " should like to have a 
holiday ' ' is the predicate. 



Write on the blackboard ten sentences, using for subjects : 

Men, Bees, Fan, Robin, 

Apples, Knife, Mice, Ships, 

Write on the blackboard ten sentences, using for predicates : 

sing, run, • make, write, 

taste, sail, speak, fly, 

Write ten other sentences on the blackboard and draw a line under each subject and under each predicate. 



Fish, 
Mary. 



play, 
build. 



Observe the use of the Rule. 




18 




Kinds of Sentences. 



IN speaking or writing we sometimes state facts, sometimes give direc- 
tions or commands, and sometimes ask questions or make exclama- 
tions about something that excites us. So we have different kinds of 
sentences. 

i. The DECLARATIVE, or telling sentence, is used in stating 
facts; as, Knowledge is useful. Great fields of cotton are grown in the 
Southern States. 

2. The INTERROGATIVE, or asking sentence, is used in asking 
questions;, as, Who invented the clock ? What kind of oranges are these ? 

3. The IMPERATIVE, or ordering sentence, is used in ordering, 
directing or commanding ; as, Ralph, shut the door. Please give me 
three yards of that ribbon. 

4. The EXCLAMATORY, or exclaiming sentence, is used in 
expressing great surprise or strong feeling ; as, Henry, how red your 
face is! O, how the wind blows ! 

What mark should be used at the end of each of these sentences ? 
The following rules tell. 

RULES 1 — 1. A period ' (•.) should be placed at the end of every 
declarative and imperative sentence. 2. An interrogation mark (?) 
should be placed at the end of every interrogative sentence. 3. An ex- 
clamation maik (!) should be placed at the end of every exclamatory 
sentence. 

Write five sentences of each kind on the blackboard, and be careful to 
place the proper mark after each. 



LETTER OF FRIENDSHIP. 

Dear Mamie: — 

I have been real well since you went home. Did we not have a 
nice time at the party ? My, how I wish we could go tonight ! I must 
tell you that I have one of those new books we saw at Mr. Palmer's. I 
like it so much. Come up next week and help me read it. Mamma is 
away at the Springs for a week's visit. O, I am so lonesome! But as all 
shadows soon pass, I expect to-morrow's sun will shine on me. I trust 
you are all well. Give my kind regards to your people. 

Affectionately, 

Daura Mitchell. 




19 






Nouns, 



0/T*Z> 



How To Write Names, or Nouns. 

All persons have names, so have all the things we use and eat, 
all streets, towns, countries, rivers, seas and mountains. Each has its 
own special name, which does not apply to others. 
Examples: — 

William M. Parker, Alice Carey, State Street, Union Avenue, 
Denver, California, Germany, Ohio River, Eake Michigan, Atlantic 
Ocean. 

The same is true of the names of churches, societies, books, plays, 
titles, days of the week and months of the year. 
Examples:— 

Methodist Church, Young Men's Christian Association, History 
of England, Declaration of Independence, Aunt, Uncle, Tuesday, July, 
Joshua Whitcomb, The Merchant of Venice. 

All such names apply to some particular person, place or thing, 
and are called Proper Nouns. 

RULE. — Every proper noun should begin with a capital letter. 

Exercises. 
Write on the blackboard short sentences, using proper names of 
each of the following: 

a lake, 

a sea, 

a river, 

a day of the week, 

a month of the year, 



a person, 
a street, 
a town, 
a country, 
a state, 



a church, 
an island, 
a book, 
a title, 
a play. 



OTHER NOUNS. 



There are many other names, or nouns that do not apply to any 
particular person, place or thing; as man, village, city, house, tree, 
stove, clock, horse. 

Such names, or nouns, we commonly use in speaking of any man, 
any town, stove, horse, etc. They are therefore called Common 
Nouns. 

A common noun should not begin with a capital. 

The two kinds of nouns I Common Nouns. 

j Proper Nouns. 





Nouns, 



How To Write Nouns That Mean More Than One. 

Names sometimes denote but one, but we often need to use them to denote more than one; as boy, boys; fly, 
flies; church, churches. 

When nouns denote but one person, place or thing, they are called Singular Nouns ; when more than 

one, Plural Nouns- 

The plural of most nouns is formed by simply adding s to the singular. 

Example: — Bird, birds; rock, rocks. Write the plural forms of the following nouns: 

Flower, hour, paper, rule, quart, tree, week, book, chair, pailful. 

To make some nouns sound right we must add es to the singular to form the plural; as dress, dresses; watch, 
watches. Write the plural forms of the following nouns: 

Porch, wish, fox, cargo, peach, brush, box, tomato, match, grass, tax, potato. 

Some names ending in y (not ey), change the y to i, and add es to form their plurals; as fly, flies; family, 
families; city, cities. 

Some nouns ending inforfe, change the/or/*? to ves; as wolf, wolves; calf, calves; knife, knives; life, lives. 

Letters and figures add the apostrophe (') and s to form the plural; as, 3, 3's; 8, 8's. Dot your i's and cross 
your t's. 

How To Write Nouns That Denote Ownership or Possession. 

We may say, John has a hat that cost a dollar; or we ma5' say, John's hat cost a dollar. 

What change has been made in the noun "John"? We have simply added to it the apostrophe and s. That is 
the way to make a singular noun denote possession. Examples: — The boy's hat, a girl's fan, a mother's darling. 

The apostrophe and s is also added to plural nouns not ending in s to make their possessive form; as, men's 
clothing; children's shoes. 

Plural names that end in 5 add the apostrophe only; as boys' hats, ladies' gloves; parents' cares. 

RULE. The possessive form of singular nouns and of plural nouns not ending in s, is formed by adding the 
apostrophe (') and sf but to plural nouns ending in .? the apostrophe only is added. 



21 








Pronouns. 




We may say, Clara lost her pencil ; The men .did their work. This 
is more elegant language than the awkward expressions, Clara lost Clara s 
pencil, or The men did the men' 1 s work. 

There are a number of little words that take the plaee of nouns in this 
way and mean the same things as the nouns. These words are called 

Pronouns. 

Definition. — -K Pronoun is a Word Used for a Noun. 

Pronouns are used like nouns — sometimes as the subject of the sen- 
tence, and sometimes in the predicate after the verb; as, It is the same book 
I had yesterday; It is he; You and she saw the balloon, but he was gone to 
the city. 

Some pronouns are used for the names of males, some for the names 



of females, 


and 


some 


for the names of things. Like 


nouns, 


some are singu 


lar in form and 


some 


are plural. 


Here is a list of most of the pronouns: 


For names 


of 


For names of 


For names of 


For all names 


Males, singi 


ilar. 


Females, plural. 


Things, singular. 




Plural. 


I, 






I. 


I, 


we, 




he, 






she, 


it, 


us, 


you, 


his, 






her, 


its, 


your, 


yours, 


him , 






hers, 


itself, 


they, 


theirs, 


himself, 






herself, 




them, 


themselves 



Other pronouns: who, whose, whom; which, what, that, etc. 
Caution. — Never use both the noun and the pronoun as a subject; 
as, Charles, he laughed. Fannie, she told me. 

Write from memory the list of the pronouns on the blackboard. 



Verbs. 



A large class of words denote action; as, Birds fly; Trees grow; John 
saws wood 

In these sentences "fly," "grow," and "saws," denote action and assert 
something of the subject. 

Words that denote action are very important and are called Verbs. 

A few verbs denote state, or condition, of the subject; as, The child 
sleeps. The dog lies on the rug. The man stood on the platform. 

There are a few other verbs that denote being, or existence only; as, 
God is everywhere. There ai'e vast oceans. I shall be at the social. 

In each example given the verb asserts something of the subject. No 
sentence can be made without at least one verb. The verb is the principal 
word in the predicate of every sentence. 

Definition. — A Verb Is a Word That Asserts Action, State, 
or Being of the Subject. 

S or es added to a noun makes it plutal; but a verb with S or es added 
is singula? . 

William plays. The boys play. The engine pushes. The engine push. 

Write ten sentences on the blackboard and draw a line under each verb. 



23 




How to Use Verbs With Nouns and Pronouns. 



Is and Are, Was and Were. 



Use is and was with singular subjects. 

Fred is in the garden. 
This paper is smooth. 
The lake was frozen. 
Harry was a jolly boy. 



Use has with a singular subject. 

Carrie has been at her aunts. 

This has been a hot day. 

That tree has a load of apples. 

Mr. Fuller has gone from home. 

Write on the blackboard twenty sentences using the verbs given above. 



Use are and were with plural subjects. 

Bees are busy workers. 
Some people are always idle. 
James and Rose were at school. 
Three pailfulls of water were used. 

Has and Have. 

Use have with a plural subject. 

Twenty dollars have been donated. 
Ducks have three webbed toes. 
Alice and Edith have read Robinson Crusoe. 
The wheels have each thirty spokes. 



Objects of Verbs. 

With some verbs the sense is not complete unless a noun or pronoun is used after them; as, Men build 
ships; Arthur made a kite; Florence saw her this morning. 

The sense in these sentences would be incomplete without the words, ' ' ships, " " kite, " ' ' her. ' ' 

When a noun or pronoun which does not mean the same person or thing as the subject is used after the 
verb, it is called the object of the verb. Thus " ships " is the object of the verb " build;" " kite " is the object 
of " make;" and " her " is the object of " saw." 

Write on the blackboard twenty sentences in which the verbs have objects. 




How To Use Pronouns With 
Verbs. * 

Use as subjects: I, we, you, 
she, he, it, they, who. 

Use as objects: me, us, you, 
her, him, them, whom. 
Examples: — 

She and I were listening: not, 
Her and me were listening. 

Whom did you see ? not, Who 
did you see ? 

Write ten sentences on the 
blackboard, using the pronouns 
given above correctly. 




Are, were and have are plural 
forms of verbs, and hence should 
have plural subjects; as, 

We are learning to speak cor- 
rectly. 

They have two wings and many 
eyes. 

You were in the house. 

Note. — The pronoun you has no singular form; therefore, you are, you were, are the correct uses, even when 
speaking to only one person. Never say, you was. 



v^W% 



A noun and a pronoun in the same sentence, meaning the same thing, must be of the same number. 

Each soldier carried his gun. All the soldiers carried their guns. 
When one pronoun refers to two nouns in the same sentence, the pronoun must be plural. 
James and Charles must study their lessons. 



Pronouns used after am, is, are, and was, should have the same forms as subjects, not the forms of those used 
as objects. 

Examples: — 
It is I. It was she. It was he. I am he of whom you spoke. Grace and Rose are they who went. 
Write on the blackboard many sentences, using pronouns correctly. 




24 




Adjectives. 



These are sweet apples. 

There are large oceans. 

Wild animals are found in Africa. 

Mrs. Simpson has many nice peaches. 

Ten men stood on the platform. 
What is said of the apples? They are sweet. "Sweet" describes the apples. So "large" describes 
"oceans," "wild" describes "animals" and "nice" describes "peaches." 

In a similar way " ten " describes or limits " men," and " many " limits " peaches." 

Definition: — Words Used To Describe or To Limit Nouns Are Called Adjectives. 
Select the adjectives in the letter on page 19, and write them on the blackboard. 



How To Use Adjectives. 

St. Louis is a large city. 
Chicago is a larger city. 
London is the largest city. 
Here " large, " "larger'" and "largest" express different degrees of size. Most adjectives may 
express the different degrees of distance, time, size, quality, etc., by adding to them er and est. Some 
adjectives add more and most, and a few change the word entirely to express the degrees. Beautiful, more 
beautiful, most beautiful; good, better, best. 

Cautions! — In speaking of only two persons or things, it is wrong to use the ending est, or the words 
most, best, least, etc., as, the one can only be better, higher, nicer, etc., than the other. 

When three or more persons or things are compared, use est, most, etc.; where only two are compared 
use er, mote, etc. 

Place adjectives as close to their nouns as possible. 



I- 


: 

h 




25 




How to Use Verbs. 



Waters freeze, Water froze, 

Here are three forms of the verb freeze, expressing difference of time. 



Water has frozen, 
Nearly all verbs' undergo changes of 



form to denote different times, 
to know are: 



These forms are called the Tenses of the verb. The most important tenses for us 



sent tense. 


Past tense. 


Perfect participle. 


Present tense. 


Past tense 


begin, 


began, 


begun, 


give, 


gave, 


choose, 


chose, 


chosen, 


g°. 


went, 


come, 


came, 


come, 


know, 


knew, 


do, 


did, 


done, 


lie, 


lay, 


eat, 


ate, 


eaten, 


lay, 


lay, 


freeze, 


froze, 


frozen, 


sit, 


sat, 


write, 


wrote, 


written, 


take, 


took, 



The Present Tense* denoting present time. 
The Past Tense, denoting past time. 
The Perfect Participle, denoting completed action. 
We should always use one of the verbs, is, are, was, wete, have, has, or had, before the PERFECT participle; 
as, I eat, I ate, I have eaten. 

The past tense and the perfect participle of most verbs end in d or ed, and such verbs are seldom misused. 
But many verbs form the tenses very irregularly. Below is a list of some of the most common irregular verbs: 

Perfect participle. \ 

given, 

gone, • 

known, 
lain, 

laid, I 

sat, 
taken, 

i 
The complete grammars give the full list. 

Caution. — Do not use is, are, was, were, have, \ 
has or had with the present or past forms. 

Correct Use. \ 

We have begun. \ 

John has broken his knife. 
Alice has come home. 
They have done the work. 
We have eaten dinner. 
The girls were hidden. 
I had written two pages. 
Incorrect Use. 

We have began. 

John has broke his knife. 

Alice has came home. 

They have did the work. 

We have eat (or ate) dinner. 

The girls were hid. | 

I had wrote two pages. 




26 




How to Use Shall and Will. 

I shall return soon. We shall be glad to see you. Shall I go to Merton's store? 
Use Shall with /and we to express a future event or to ask a question. 
You will see the mountains. He will hear the band. They will form an association. She will go 
soon. Charles zvill mail the letter. 

Use will with other pronouns than /and we, and with proper nouns to express a future event. 
When shall is used with other pronouns than I and we or with proper nouns it expresses determination. 

He shall carry that load. You shall go to the mill. Edith and James shall stay at home. 
When will is used with / or we, it expresses determination. 

I will not carry that load. I will go by the mill to the depot. 

Correct Use. Incorrect Use. 

I shall drown for no one will help me out. I will drown for no one shall help me out. 

Should and WOTlld are used in the same manner as shall and will. 

Examples: — Future Events. 

I should be pleased to meet him. We should like to go with you if there is room. You would be delighted 
with the scenery. She would not go if she knew that. Charles would like to buy that property. 

Determination . 
I would not buy that property. We would be there if we could. You should not go if I could prevent it. Fred 
should be praised. She should return the umbrella at once. Should is often used correctly in the sense of ought. 



May and Can. 

May is used to express permission or probability. You may go to the park. Clara may go with you. It 
may rain before you return. The book may be on the mantel. 

Can is used to express power or ability. Hugh can sail a boat. Trains can run very fast. Stella can write 
nicely. She can read well. 

Write on the blackboard ten sentences using shall and will correctly, ten sentences using should and would cor- 
rectly, and ten sentences using may and can correctly. 



Sit and Set. 

Sit does not require an object to complete its meaning. We can not sit anything. I sit in this chair. 
Yesterday I sat in the house. You have sat on a table like a tailor. 

Set requires an object to complete its meaning. We can not set without setting some object. Fannie, set 
this chair in the parlor. She set the ink on the desk. We have set the table for a week. 

Caution. — Do not use the verb sit, sat, sat, with an object, nor the verb set, set, set, without an object. 



Lie and Lay. 

Lie does not require an object to complete its meaning. We could not lie anything. 

Note. — The past tense of lie is lay . (See page 26. ) But when lay is used in the sense of reclined it can not have an object. 

Cattle lie down at night. The dog lay on the poarch yesterday. George has lain abed sick all day. 

Lay requires an object to complete its meaning. You may lay a book on the desk. We laid our hats on the 
table last night. Ralph has laid papers on the table frequently. 

Caution. — Do not use an object with the verb lie, lay, lain, and do not use the verb lay, laid, laid, without an 
object. 

Write on the blackboard many sentences, using sit and set, lie and lay, correctly. 



27 




Rules for the Use of Capitals. 

A capital letter should begin — 

i. The first word of every sentence. 

2. The first word of every line of poetry. 

3. All proper nouns. 

4. The principal words in the subject of 
every composition, essay and newspaper article. 

5. The first word of every direct quota- 
tion. 

6. All references to God, 

7. All titles; as, Uncle, Aunt, Esquire, 
when used with the names of persons. 

8. Every abbreviation ; as, Mr., Miss., 
J. A. Thomas. 

9. The days of the week and months of 
the year. 

10. The words I and O should always be 
capitals. 

Rules for Punctuation. 

1 . Use a period at the end of every de- 
clarative and imperative sentence. 

2. Use a period after every abbreviation. 

3. Use a period after the subject of a 
composition, an essay, or the title of a book or 
newspaper article. 

4. Place an interrogation mark (?) at 
the end of every interrogative sentence. 

5. Place the exclamation mark ( ! ) after 
every exclamation. 

6. Use the quotation marks (" ") to 
inclose all quotations of the exact words of 
others. 

7. Use the comma to separate two or 
more adjectives used in succession to describe 
the same noun, unless and joins them; as, A 
tall, symmetrical tree stood in the yard. The 
work is educational, attractive and durable. 

8. Use commas to separate from the rest 
of the sentence such expressions as moreover, 
however, as a matter of course, as it were, etc. 

9. Use a semicolon ( ; ) before as when it 
introduces an example, and place a comma 
after it. 

10. Use a semicolon to separate the prin- 
cipal members of a long sentence, especially, 
J f commas are required in the parts of the 
members. 

Rules for Writing. 

1. Write a medium sized, plain hand. 

2. Make short sentences. At least, do 
not write three or four long ones in succession. 

3. Do not use two adjectives in succes- 
sion, meaning the same thing to describe the 
same noun; as, a tall, high tree. 

4. Be careful to use the word that ex- 
presses the exact meaning you intend to 
convey. 

5. Punctuate your sentences as you write 
them. 

6. Eook carefully over your writing to 
correct all errors in spelling and mistakes in 
the use of words. 



28 




How to Write Letters. 



Chicago, 111., June 23, 1895. 
836 Forrest St., Kansas City, Mo 
Feb. 14, 1892. 



The Place and Date are called the Heading. 
Examples: — 

3. Iowa State University, 
Iowa City, la., Sept. 20, 1894. 

4. North Orange, N. J., Aug. 12, 1895. 




The expression of respect or affection at the opening is the Salutation. 

Examples. 
For letters of friendship. 
My dear Father, — 
Dear Sister, — 
Dear Frank, — 
My dear Edith,— 
Dear Aunt Harriet, — 

For strangers. 
Dear Sir: — 4. Madam: 

Sir: — 5. Dear Madam: — 

Gentlemen: — 



For business letters. 

1. Messrs A. H. Andrews & Co., 
215 Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111 

Gentlemen: — 

2. Mr. T. E. Rogers, 
Beloit, Kansas. 

Dear Sir:— 

3. The James Quinn Grocery Co., 
625 Jackson St., St. Louis, Mo. 

Gentlemen : — 



The closing words of a letter, including the signature, are called the 
Conclusion. 

Examples. 

For business letters. 



For letters of friendship. 
I. Your loving daughter, 

Florence Randolph. 
Most sincerly yours, 

Edward Thornton. 
Very respectfully yours, 

Alice Morrell. 
Affectionately yours, 

Carrie Evans. 



4- 



1. Very truly yours, 

A. G. Glaser. 

2. Yours respectfully, 

James R. Smith. 

3. Yours truly, 

C. E. Wheeler. 

4. Very respectfully yours, 

M. W. Pierson & Co. 



Business Letters. 

Youths' Companion, 741 Washington St., Memphis, Tenn. 

Boston, Mass. Dec. 18, 1895. 

Gentlemen : —Enclosed is a money order for One and i 7 o 5 o Dollars for which please send to my address "The 
Youths' Companion" for one year, beginning with the holiday number. Most respectfully yours, 

Loren E. Price, 



ADDRESS ON ENVELOPE. 



STAMP. 




441, 






Atlanta, Ga. , May 25, 1893. 
Messrs. Washburn & Crosby, 

Minneapolis, Minn. 
Gentlemen: — 

Please ship to me here at once one car-load Super- 
lative Flour at price and terms quoted 15th inst. 

Yours truly, 

Wayman Grocery Co. 



Observe carefully the use of capitals, the exact and uniform 
use of the comma, period, colon and dash in the examples; and the 
relative positions of the heading, salutation and conclusion in the 
business letters. An example of a letter of friendship was given 
on a previous page. Practice in writing the heading, etc. , of let- 
ters on the blackboard and on paper will be necessary to write 
them accurately and rapidly. 



29 



Geography. 



Geography is a most delightful branch of study. It comprises a description of the whole earth's surface — the 
different races of people, the nations they have formed, how they live and what they do ; the snow capped mountains 
and river gorges ; the fertile plains and beautiful lakes ; the vast expanse of the oceans with their wonderful currents 
and delightful coral islands — all these subjects, and very many more can be studied in the complete geographies. 




THE OCEAN. ISLAND. CAPES. 

PENINSULA. ISTHMUS. 

SCHOOL HOUSE. BAY. PORT. 



MOUNTAINS. 
PLAIN. 



VOLCANO. 

LAKE. 
RIVER. RAILROAD. 



Definitions. 



Geography is a description of the earth's surface — 
its waters, lands, climates, people, animals and products. 

Waters. — The waters are the Oceans, Seas, Gulfs, 
Bays, Lakes, Straits, Rivers, Creeks and Springs. 

Oceans are the largest bodies of water, and cover 
nearly three-fourths of the earth's surface. 

Seas are next in size to oceans. Their waters are 
salt like those of the oceans. 

Gulfs and Bays are arms of the oceans and seas 
extending into the land, making irregular coast lines, and 
often affording quiet harbors for ships. Their waters are 
salt. 

Lakes are bodies of water lying over depressions in 
the land areas. Small lakes are called ponds. When 
lakes have no -outlet to the ocean their water, are salt like 
that of the ocean. 

Straits are narrow channels which connect two 
larger bodies of water. 

Rivers are streams flowing down through their 



channels in the land to empty their waters into the sea. 
Some rivers flow into larger rivers, or into lakes. 

Creeks are very small streams. 

Springs. — All the waters of the great land areas come 
from rains, which fill the low places and form lakes ; or, 
sinking into the earth, form springs, which help to make 
the creeks and rivers. 

THE EARTH AND MOON. 

(See next page.) You have often looked at the moon 
at night in the eastern sky when it was full and bright. 
What a beautiful object it is ; far, far out in space! It is 
round like an orange ; so is the earth. Nothing seems 
to hold the moon in its place ; neither has the earth any 
visible support. If you observe the moon for several 
evenings in succession, you will see that each evening it 
is farther to the east than it was the evening before at the 
same hour. The moon moves around the earth from west 
to east once in about twenty-eight days ; and in the same 
direction the earth revolves around the sun once a year, 
pulling the moon with it. 



30 



:*&£(h& 







THE EARTH IN SPACE. 



THE MOON. SATURN. 



Place a lamp upon a table to represent the sun, and run a wire through an apple to represent the earth. Now 
hold up the apple by the wire and see how the light falls on one side of it while the other side is in the shade. Move 
slowly around the table; and as you go, revolve the wire thus turning all sides of the apple toward the light many 
times, while you move once around the lamp. This experiment shows how we have so many days in a year. 



Definitions, 



The names applied to the lands are Grand Divisions, Islands, Peninsulas, Isthmuses, Capes, Mountains, 
Plateaus, Hills, Plains and Valleys. 

Grand Divisions are the largest land areas. 

Islands are portions of land surrounded by water. 

Peninsulas are land areas extending into, and nearly surrounded by water. 

Isthmuses are small necks of land joining two larger areas. 

Capes are points of land extending into the water. 

Mountains are great elevations of land more than 1,000 feet above the sea. 

Plateaus are high elevated lands between mountain chains. 

Hills are small elevations of land. 

Plains are comparatively level tracts of land. 

Valleys are low lands between hills or mountains. 



31 



Western Hemisphere. 




REFERENCES TO NUMBERS. 

1. Sorata 24,800 7. Cayambe 19,535 14. Fuego 13,8°° 21. Mt. Egmont 8.850 

2. Sahama 23,000 8. Chimborazo 21,420 15. Pikes Peak 14,147 22. " Kilauea ...6,000 

3. Aconcagua 22,422 9. Arequipa 20,320 16. Mt. Ranier 14,444 23. 

4. Illhnani 21,145 10. Popocatapetl 17,717 17. Fremont's Peak 13, 570 24. 

5. Chiquibamba 21,000 11. Mt. St. Elias 17,900 19. Mt. Hood 11,225 25. 

6. Tapungata . . . . 20,270 13. Anpua I3-500 20. " St. Helena 9.750 26. 



Jorullo 4,265 

Mansfield 4,420 

Mitchell 6.582 

Washington 6,298 



32 



Eastern Hemisphere. 




REFERENCES TO NUMBERS. 



i. Mt. Everest 29,062 8. 

2. " Kunchinginga . . .28,156 9. 

3. " Dhawalgari 26,826 10. 

4. ' ' Chamalari 23,944 1 1 . 

5. Hindoo Koosh 20,000 12. 

6. Mt. Demavend 18,500 13. 

7. " Ararat 16,960 14. 



Mt. Fujiyama 15,000 

" Elburz 18,572 

" Kilima Njaro. . . 20,065 

" Kasheck !6,550 

" Blanc 15,780 

" Manna Loa 14,900 

" Owen Stanley. .13,205 



15. Mt. Ophir 13,842 

16. " Cenis 11,460 

17. " Teneriffe 12,180 

19. Snow Mts 10,000 

20. Mt. Hermon 10,000 

21. " Sinai 9,3°4 



23. Mt. Kosciusko 6,500 

24. Western Gliants Mts.. 6, 000 

27. Mt. Cat 4,240 

28. Ben Nevis 4, 406 

29. Ben Lomond 3,i9 2 

30. Mt. Vesuvius 3,948 



33 




Blackboard Work. 



Draw the map on the blackboard many times, observing only the general form and relative position of the principal 
points. Note that the mainlands of Alaska and Greenland extend south nearly to the same line; that Florida and Lower 
California are in the same latitude; that Central America is south of the Great Lakes; that the mouth of the Mississippi 
River and Florida are south of Hudson Bay. Observe that the Caribbean Sea is larger than the Gulf of Mexico; Labrador 
is larger than Alaska, and Lower California larger than Florida. Many other points may be noted. 

Finally, draw the map many times entirely from memory. 

34 




Blackboard Work. 



South America is noted for its even coast line, being less indented by gulfs and bays than any other continent, 
has no lakes of any importance, but its river systems are very complete. 
Note its triangular form. 

South America is constantly growing in commercial importance to us. We should know all its countries. 
Draw, first, the outline of the map several times, then try making the boundary lines of the countries. 

35 



It 




The Circles, 



n ob™ Pot e 



There are, of course, no lines drawn on the 
earth's surface. We only imagine them for con- 
venience and draw them on maps to indicate 
locations. All the principal lines on a globe, 
except the meridians, are parallel to the equator. 
The names of the circles are given in the illustra- 
tion at the top of this page. 

The Arctic Circle is 23^ degrees from 
the north pole, and marks the limits of the sun's 
light at the time of the longest and shortest days. 

The Tropics of Cancer and Capri- 
corn mark the farthest distance north and south 
of the equator at which the sun's light falls ver- 
tically upon the earth. About June 20 the sun's 
rays falls vertically at any point on the Tropic 
of Cancer at mid-day at that point. We then 
have our longest days and the sun is high in the 
sky. About December 20 the sun's rays fall 
vertical at any place on the Tropic of Capricorn 
at mid-day at that place. We then have our 
shortest days and the sun is far to the south and 
low in the sky. But this apparent shifting of the 
sun to the south and back again to the north is 
wholly due to the movement of the earth around 
the sun. 

The Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn are each 
23^3 degrees from the equator. 

The Antarctic Circle is 23^ degrees 

from the south pole and marks the distance the 

sunlight reaches beyond when it is winter at the 

north, and the distance it falls short of reaching 

the south pole when we have summer at the north. 

The Meridians extend only from pole to 

pole. There are 360 of them, one for every degree 

on the equator, but they are never all marked on 

the maps. 

The circles described above divide the earth's surface into five great divisions or 

belts which are called Zones. These are named in the second illustration on this page. 

Widths of the Zones. Since the Arctic and Antarctic circles are 23^2 degrees from 

the poles and extend around the poles it follows that the Frigid Zones must be 47 degrees wide. The Torrid Zone is 

23^ degrees on each side of the equator and hence is also 47 degrees wide. The North and the South Temperate 

Zones occupy the remaining space and are each 43 degrees wide. 

The second illustration represents the sun's rays coming to the earth 
from the right. The spaces between the lines are equal; but observe that 
the area heated by the rays coming in the spaces A and B is not nearly so large as that of the spaces heated by the rays 
at G and H. Hence the smaller space at A A. must be heated more in the year than the larger spaces at G and H. 

It is plain from the first illustration that 
shadows of people in the southern hemisphere 

Illlf iiiillliilri ^ to ^ e soutn °f their feet while here at the 

11 north our shadows fall to the north of our feet. 

|)!!!!!!P 




•South pole. 



The Zones. 



Heat and Shadows. 




Phases of the floon. 



I:;.' 



The illustration at the bottom of this page 
represents the moon in various positions with 
the earth at the center. The inner circle shows 
the moon as it really is — half of its surface is 
lighted by the sun at all times. The outer circle 
represents it as we see it from the earth. 

The moon has no light of its own. We can 
see it only as the sun's light falls on it. When 
the moon is straight west at sunset, we cannot see 
any of the lighted side; but as it rises higher, 
evening after evening, we see first some, then 
more of the lighted side. Finally it reaches the 
eastern sky at sunset, then we can see the whole 
lighted face, big, round and bright. 

If we want to see the moon decrease, we 
must be up late at night and early in the morning. 



36 




The Change of Seasons. 



rjjjp 



THE above cut represents the earth in various positions on its path or orbit around the sun ( S ). If a great sheet 
of paper or glass were passed through the center of the earth and through the center of the sun, this path or orbit 
would everywhere lie in such a sheet, and the sheet would be the Plane of the earth's orbit, or as it is called, the 
Plane Of the Ecliptic. The axis of the earth is the line passing through its center from pole to pole. 

On or about March 20, the days and nights are equal, because the earth is at that part of its orbit where the sun- 
light falls perpendicularly upon the equator. But when it moves onward the light does not fall perpendicularly 
upon the equator, but at places north of it; the light then reaches beyond the north pole, but does not quite reach the 
south pole. This causes a long night at the south pole, and a long day at the north pole. In midsummer, about 
June 21, the sunlight reaches 23^ degrees beyond the north pole, and falls 23^ degrees short of reaching the south 
pole. It is now mid-summer at the north and mid-winter at the south. As the earth moves on, the light again 
approaches the south pole and the darkness approaches the north pole, till, about Sept. 21, the days and nights are 
again equal. After this, the light shifts from the north pole, and beyond the south pole, producing winter at the 
north, and summer at the south. Thus the different seasons are brought about every year. 

Essential Conditions to the Change of Seasons. 



1. The earth must travel around the sun. 

2. The earth must revolve on its axis very often. 

3. The axis must be inclined to the orbit. 

4. The axis must always point in the same direction. 



37 



AREA, POPULATION, AND VALUE OF EXPORTS OF THE CONTINENTS. 

VALUE OF EXPORTS TO THE 

AREA, SQUARE MILES. POPULATION. UNITED STATES. 

Asia 17,210,000 834,707,000 $39,500,000 

Africa 11,545,000 205,700,000 

North America 9,308,000 75,500,000 15,425,000 

South America 6,855,000 28, 150,000 65,660,000 

Europe 3,785,000 315,929,000 336,950,000 

Australia and Oceanica 3,460,000 4,060,000 2,750,000 

PRODUCTS OF THE CONTINENTS. 
Europe. 

Vegetation. — Forest trees, the olive, almond, orange, grape, cork-bark tree: wheat, oats, barley, rye, corn, 
flax, hemp, and many fruits. 

Animals. — Reindeer, wolf, fox, bear, wild boar, panther, buffalo, chamois, ibex. 

Minerals. — Coal, iron, lead, tin, zinc, copper, platinum, salt. 

Manufactures. — Iron, steel, and brass tools of all kinds; machinery, utensils, jewelry; silk, cotton, linen, and 
woolen goods in wonderful variety; leather, rope, cane, bamboo and rubber goods of all kinds; wines and liquors; 
iron-stone, china, porcelain and glass ware; paper, ships, etc., etc. 

Asia and East Indies. 

Vegetation. — Aloe, ebony, bamboo, sandal-wood, banana, date, fig, olive, tamarind, camphor tree; cocoa, 
cinnamon, clove, nutmeg, and other spice trees; opium, tea, coffee, indigo; wheat, barley, oats, rice, rye, corn, 
cotton, tobacco, and garden vegetables. 

Minerals. — Coal, iron, lead, tin, zinc, copper, platinum, gold, silver; diamonds, rubies, and other precious 
stones. 

Animals. — The tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, tapir, monkey, ape, babboon, bear, fox, wolf, pangolin, ant-eater, 
hyena, seal, buffalo, gazelle, musk deer, crocodile, and many poisonous serpents. 

Manufactures. — Shawls, carpets, rugs, silk goods, toys, leather, sugar, indigo, opium, camphor, porcelain, 
cane and bamboo goods. 

North America and West Indies. 

Vegetation. — Timber, dye-woods, vanilla, coffee, banana, palm, cocoa, orange, lemon, olive, rubber tree, 
mahogany, indigo, rosewood, cactus, cane, bamboo, wheat, corn, oats, rye, barley, rice, sugar cane, cotton, tobacco, 
hay, potatoes, hemp, flax, and garden vegetables of every kind. 

Minerals. — Iron, coal, copper, tin, lead, zinc, gold, silver, diamonds, salt, gypsum. 

Animals. — Bison, grizzly and black bear, puma (called the American panther), deer, elk, antelope, big horn, 
mountain goat, prairie dog, fox, wolf, mink, otter, beaver, skunk, armadillo, ant-eater, alligator, seal, cochineal, 
birds in great variety, and many poisonous serpents. 

Manufactures. — Iron, steel, brass and bronze goods of every description; machinery, farm implements, edged 
tools, utensils, watches, clocks, jewelry; glass, iron-stone, porcelain and wooden ware; silk, cotton, linen and woolen 
goods of all kinds; rubber and leather goods. Nearly every article made in the world is manufactured in the United 
States. 

South America. 

Vegetation. — Coffee, India rubber tree, cinchona (peruvian bark tree), palm tree, rosewood, dye woods, 
mahogany, cocoanut, orange, lemon, banana, tapioca, indigo, sugar cane, pineapple, many species of cacti; wheat, 
corn, oats, rice, rye, barley, garden vegetables. 

Mine?-als. — Gold, silver, coal, iron, copper, lead, zinc, saltpetre. 

Animals. — L,latna, alpaca, puma, jaguar, monkey, ant-eater, armadillo, boa, condor, rhea, penguin; humming 
birds and insects of wonderful variety and beauty. Horses, cattle and sheep were introduced into America from 
Europe and now range the plains of South America in vast herds. 

Manufactures. — The manufactures of South America are very limited. Nearly all the products are exported as 
raw material to Europe and the United States, to be manufactured into useful goods. 

Africa. 

Vegetation. — Most of the vegetation of Africa lies in the middle belt of the continent, where it is very dense 
though not nearly equal to that of South America. The oil palm, date palm, acacia (gum tree), fig, olive, orange, 
almond, lemon, bananas, spices; rice and other grains are raised in small quantities. 

Minerals. — Gold, diamonds, and precious stones. The mines of Africa are not opened to any great extent. 
Its mineral wealth is uncertain. 

Animals. — Africa is noted for the number and size of its wild animals. The elephant, giraffe, hippopotamus, 
rhinoceros, lion, leopard, hyena, gorilla, chimpanze, and many species of monkeys; the ostrich, ibis, camel, gnu, 
springbok, antelope. 

Manufactures. — The manufactures are very limited. Leather, gum-arabic, olive oil, a few fabrics, and ivory 
articles. 

Australia. 

Vegetation. — Australia has fewer dense forests than any other continent. The trees are mostly evergreen and 
some are noted as being the tallest in the world. Coffee, indigo, wheat, cotton. 

Minerals. — Gold, silver, tin, copper, coal. 

Animals. — The kangaroo, duck-bill, wombat, apteryx, lyre bird. Immense herds of sheep and cattle graze 
over the vast plains. 

Manufactures. — Not developed to any great extent. 

38 



